Final Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Final Project - Essay Example MCD has been steadily increasing its debt-equity ratio from the year 2007 through 2012. The following table represents the debt-equity ratio of the company for last 5 years. Year Dec. 2007 Dec. 2008 Dec. 2009 Dec. 2010 Dec. 2011 Debt-equity ratio, Source: ycharts.com 06087 0.7635 0.7538 0.8386 0.8687 EPS, Source: Nasdaq.com 1.98 3.76 4.11 4.58 5.27 Price per share, source: Key statistics 57.05 63.75 62.44 76.76 100.33 P/E, (by calculation) 30.22 16.42 15.47 16.75 19.03 It can be seen from the above table that as debt-equity ratio rises, earnings per share of the company also rises and so the market price per share of the company. Does this mean that the company should go on increasing debt to increase its earnings and thereby shareholder’s wealth? In fact, the trade-off theory ascertains that the optimal debt-equity ratio is 2:1(Optimal Capital Structure, 2012). In the same industry, the company such as AFC Industries has been found to have debt-equity ratio as high as 2.62 as on August, 2012 (Industry debt-equity ratio). High amount of debt is good during booming period but equally risky during downslide when revenues fall exponentially and the company may find difficult to pay interest towards its debt. That is the reason high leveraging is considered risky during recessionary period, however, in case of MCD, there is considerable scope to increase its debt-equity ratio to expand its business. MCD’s Cost of Capital can be given using Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) K = RF + b (KM - RF), where K is the cost of capital, RF denotes the risk-free return, b (beta) is the systematic risk of a stock relative to the market or index such as S&P. (KM - RF), denotes about the equity risk premium that market would like to earn over risk-free return in the long run (Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), 2012). Currently, risk free return RF can be taken as 1.5% which can be earned by investing in the long term treasury bonds. Beta b is measured as = 0.31 (y ahoo.com) (KM - RF) can be taken as 7 percent that anybody would like to earn over and above risk free return. Thus, the cost of capital = 1.5 + 0.31 (7.0) = 3.67% Higher debt-equity ratio would make more funds available to the company for business without raising any extra equity. Currently, the shareholder's equity is $14.04B and long term debt is $13.57B (as per data from second quarter 2012). This means that the company is operating at the debt-equity ratio of 13.75/14.04 = 0.98 When company operates at 2:1 (debt-equity) ratio means the company would have total debt available to them $28.08B. That means the company would have extra $14.25B funds available that can be deployed in the asset formation or expansion of the business without raising any extra capital from the shareholders. It is assumed that this extra capital adds to the business and thereby EPS of the company in the same proportion (while all other things remaining the same, of course!). Thus, extrapolating current E PS of 5.32 One can derive new EPS as 5.32 ? (3/1.98) = 8 Assuming the same P/E ratio of 19 that MCD had during the year 2011, we have New Market Price/share of the company, P = 19 ? 8 = 152 New Market Capitalization or Market Value = Number of shares ? market price/ share = 16,600 ? 152 = $38.35B Dividend Policy The company is in fast-food business and runs a large chain of

Sincerity and Professional Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Sincerity and Professional Ethics - Essay Example From early childhood, ethics are being taught and understood so that one makes them a part of his/her personality and do not get diverted from them at later stages. Moral values like speaking of truth always, obeying of elders and sincerity for others are some basic ethics which are expected from every individual in his/her personal and professional life. The difference line between ethics and immorality is as simple as what to do and what not to do to become a good human being and a beneficial part of the society. Ethics are needed to be followed in every mode of life, from homes to workplace, from high business dealings to small private jobs; personal and professional ethics are of extreme consideration and importance and people who follow these are highly acknowledged. These are not meant to be known only rather these are meant for understanding and correctly implementing at proper occasions. A good life is based upon a correct set of norms and values which define its code of ethics. These norms and values are not individual sets of political, religious or social basis rather they reflect logical point of views which must be adapted in order to have a better life for self and for others. These ethics are universally accepted as these are independent of culture, society or religion. Philosophically, ethics are termed as determination of right and wrong and involve such decisions which identify the borders and limits of do’s don’ts. These demand reason and logics to be followed in real life so that one can live an easy and contended life (Fletcher 1966). Simple moral ethics include taking care of sick, obeying of elders, avoiding lies, fair dealings etc. All these are common in every society and every religion of the world. Professional Ethics No doubt that ethics are given privilege at any place and at any level of like, but professional ethics are of partic ular importance in this regard. Professionalism is a very main aspect of life in which more than half of the population of the world is involved. A person who goes to a work place to earn for life is termed as a professional, particularly who have some skills and expertise by which he/she can serve the organizations with what he/she is affiliated. Since professionals are specialists of their corresponding fields, they can perform such activities and functions which an ordinary person and general public cannot, since they have the knowledge and expertise. The way in which a professional use his/her knowledge and conduct his/her self at his/her workplace is known as professional ethics and morals. These ethics are a predefined set of rules which every professional should adapt so as to become a nice colleague, a good subordinate, a better manager and a beneficial part of the organization for what he/she works. For different professionals, there are different codes of ethics which they have to follow in order to serve the society well. For examples, doctors have to take an oath by which they are bound to serve the humanity at all costs and by the best of their knowledge and expertise. They must prefer patients upon self and make their best efforts to cure them. Other professionals like engineers, IT professionals, teachers, scientists etc have different professional ethics which are sometimes defined by the corresponding work organizations. Social organizations like Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IEEE define a code of ethics for all professionals. According to that, all IEEE members are bound to show responsibility in enhancing such technologies which are beneficial to the general

Quest for Manhood Malcolm X Essay Example for Free

Quest for Manhood Malcolm X Essay Manhood is when a boy takes the leap from being a child to a true man. People say that leap happens at different times for every boy. People can tell it happens because they stop acting foolishly and deal with matters by themselves. The four stories The Autobiography of Malcolm X, â€Å"The Ethics of Living Jim Crow†, â€Å"The Man Who Killed a Shadow†, and â€Å"Almos’ a Man† all deal with African American boys and them becoming true men. The literature of Richard Wright and Malcolm X illustrate how African American males encountered much difficulty in asserting their manhood while living within the racist society of the 1930’s and 1940’s. Racism denied African American males the opportunity to gain economic power. In â€Å"The Ethics of Living Jim Crow†, the young African American boy gets a job in a factory. He works with white men and wants to learn more. One day he is told that the factory is â€Å"a white man’s work†¦and [he] better watch [him] self! † (241) The white men feel he is threatening their job even though he is just trying to support his family. They threaten him and make him quit his job. Unlike the young boy who already has a job, Malcolm X moves to Boston to search for a new job. During Malcolm X, Malcolm decides his life would be better if he moves in with his sister. He was walking through the city and noticed these people were â€Å"only a big city version of those successful Negro bootblacks and janitors back in Lansing† (42). Janitors and bootblacks were considered successful jobs for African Americans where that job for a white man would be around middle to lower class. Blacks don’t even have a chance at a good job like a lawyer or doctor. â€Å"The Man with a Shadow† is about an African American man growing up in life. He is working as a janitor and his boss has legs spread wide open and her panties showing. He is embarrassed and refuses to clean under her desk. The boss becomes angry and screams, â€Å"‘You’re being paid to clean, You black nigger†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (232). The black man feels real embarrassed and gets yelled at for not cleaning the same area again. He feels as if he is being treated like a slave. Also being called the N word is real offensive for African Americans. He has to quit because he accidentally killed the librarian. Economic power is one step in leading men to manhood, but exercising one’s freedom is also an important step. Racism prevented African American males from exercising their autonomy. In â€Å"The Ethics of Living Jim Crow†, the young African American boy has a job and is making a delivery. He is on his back to the store when â€Å"a police car, swerving toward [him], jammed [him] into the curbing† (244). Blacks in this time period were treated unfairly. He is just trying to do his job and even the cops wouldn’t let blacks exercise their own independence. Whites put fear into blacks in all different kinds of settings during this time period, from work places to social settings. During Malcolm X, Malcolm is in a theatre watching a show. When the show started, Malcolm â€Å"was the only Negro in the theatre†¦[and] felt like crawling under a rug† (33). People go to theatres all the time and shouldn’t be forced to feel uncomfortable while in them. Malcolm wants to watch the show, but since the country was so racist and he was the only black, he felt weird and wanted to leave. Later on in the book, Malcolm is thinking about what he wanted to do for his job. â€Å"Lansing certainly had no negro lawyers or doctors,† something he may have wanted to be (38). He wants to be successful in life, but as he recalls there are zero lawyers or doctors in Lansing. This quote shows that because of race alone, blacks can’t use their autonomy and get a job they aspire to be. Finding their independence was hard enough, but trying to protect each other was even harder. Racism would not allow African American males to defend themselves or others. The young boy in â€Å"The Ethics of a Living Jim Crow† is at a store working when an old woman gets beat. â€Å"They would not beat me if I knew enough to keep my mouth shut† even though they beat that old black lady (243). The white workers beat an old black lady for not paying her bill. He could not defend the old lady because he knew the whites would hurt him if I tried to help her. Later on in the story, a security guard slaps a fellow black female employee on the butt. The African American man feels embarrassed for letting his friend get slapped on the butt. The employee who got slapped says, â€Å"‘Don’t worry, you couldn’t help it†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (246). This quote shows that blacks had no chance to defend others because if they did, the whites would just beat them even more. The girl knows they can’t do anything about it and tells him not to worry. From white security guards to racist groups such as the KKK, whites could do basically whatever they want to do to blacks at this time. At the very beginning of Malcolm X, the KKK is at Malcolm’s house. They were surrounding the house, â€Å"brandishing their shotguns and rifles† (1). The KKK is around the house with weapons wanting Malcolm’s father to leave town. He had no way to defend himself because they had all weapons. Many people and organizations in town, and even the police are corrupt and don’t like the blacks. Part of being a man is defending others and the whites would not let them do this at this time. The four stories show how black males had different obstacles to overcome in gaining their manhood while living in the racist society during the mid 1900’s. The boys in all the stories had problems they encountered on their way to finding their manhood. They couldn’t gain economic power, exercise their autonomy, or defend themselves and others. The 30’s and 40’s were a bad time for African Americans to live in, but as the years have gone on, minorities have gained more rights in America. With the help of groups such as the NAACP, blacks have more rights than ever. Barack Obama, the United States President and Tiger Woods, the world’s most popular athlete are both examples of how far African Americans have come.

Professional Philosophy And Occupational Therapy

Professional Philosophy And Occupational Therapy The definition of occupational therapy as gradually metamorphosis from its genesis till date, yet it has gradually evolved from its first definition in 1914 by George Barton who stated that if there is an occupational disease, why not an occupational therapy. While in 1919, he further postulated that occupational therapy is the science of instructing and encouraging the sick in such labours as will involve those energies and activities producing a beneficial therapeutic effect. Over the years, the definition of occupational therapy had transited and in 1923, Herbert J. Hall define occupational therapy as that which provide light work under medical; supervision for the benefit of patients convalescing in hospital and homes, using handicraft not with the aim of making craftsmen of the patients but for the purpose of developing physics and mental effectiveness. American occupational therapy Association (AOTA) proposed the definition that occupational therapy is the art and science of di recting mans involvement in selected task to reinstate, reinforce and enhance performance, to facilitate learning of the skills and functions essential for adaptation and productivity, diminish or correct pathology and to promote and maintain health. In 1994 AOTA mmrevised the definition and stated that occupational therapy is the use of purposeful activity or interventions to promote health and achieve functional out come to develop, improve or restore the highest possible level of independence with person who is limited by a physical injury or illness. The goal of occupational therapy is to assist the individual in achieving an independent, productive and satisfying life style. Occupational therapist use adaptive activities to increase the individuals functioning and productivity in view of achieving independence and satisfaction. Occupational therapy is a health discipline concerned with enabling function and well-being (Baum, 1997) Occupation in Occupational Therapy (Polatakjo 2007, Wilcock 2000), states that the ultimate impact of occupational therapy in multidisciplinary health care service must be a profound understanding of enabling occupation (Pollock and McColl 2003) also stresses that the knowledge of occupation is employed as a means to enhance the development of health in people. Occupational therapists also aspire to the goal of facilitating occupational engagement and performance as the end or outcome of therapy. Occupation is the purposeful or meaningful activities in which human beings engage as part of their normal daily livesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ all aspects of daily living that contribute to health and fulfilment for an individual(McColl 2003 p1) Schwammle (1996) encourage occupational therapists to focus on enabling clients achieve a sense of well being via occupation. In contrast, (Wilcock 2006) de-emphasises occupation in favour of established concepts that are more consistent with a medical model. He also stressed that medical focus, rather than an occupational focused may have resulted in therapists looking at remedying performance components rather than addressing occupation itself, but (Molineux, 2004) said it will be highly problematic as it will lead to issues of role blurring, role overlap and role ambiguity. A different dimension to core philosophy of occupational therapy is functional independence or activity of daily living as the ultimate goal of occupational therapy (Thornton and Rennie 1998). Chavalier (1997) concurred that occupational therapists experience difficulty agreeing on what occupational therapy is, and also that the diverse opinion is a strength to the occupational therapy profession. There seems to be an overall conclusion by occupational therapy experts that occupational therapy as a profession should mainly focus and emphasis on occupation as the core centre of the profession. (Baum and Baptiste 2007, Law et al 2002, Wilcock 2000, Asmundsottir and Kaplan 2001) all stress that occupation should be central in occupational practices. Various authors also gave reasons why occupation should be the epicentre of occupational therapy: It will provide an exclusive perspective that will ensure the professional survival of OT in health service (Pierce 2001) It will unite OT and ensure its continued survival (Nelson 1996). It will enable OT to achieve its full potential (Crabtree 2000) Occupation-focused practice may result in more satisfying practice for individual occupational therapists (Molineux 2004, Wilding 2008) Occupation focused may assist therapists intervention s to be more meaningful when dealing with complex issues (Persson et al 2001) It makes OT to be a true, self-defining profession. Metamorphosis Of Occupational Therapy Right from the inception of occupational therapy. the concepts of occupation is the foundation upon which the profession is built. The founders of occupational therapy the likes of George Barton, Fleanor Clarke Slage, Adolph Meyer etc based the new profession on their own personal experiences of the health enhancing effects of engagement in purposeful and meaningful activities (Peloquin, 1991a), Kielhofner (1992) noted for the early part of twentieth century how occupation is seen to play an essential role in human life and lack of it could result in poor health and dysfunction, occupation is also seen as the link between the mind and soul. Occupational therapy There was a shift of focus to mechanistic paradigm in the (1960s). These emphases the ability to perform depend on the integrity of body systems, and functional performance can be restored by improving or compensating for system limitations. KIELHOFNER (1992) saw a growing dissatisfaction among occupational therapist with the mechanistic approach whiled Reilly (1992) called for therapist in the early 1960s to focus on occupational nature of humans and also the ability of the profession to emphasize on the occupation needs of people contemporary paradigm (1980- present day).(Molineux 2009) Relationship between professional philosophy and occupational therapy A professional philosophy helps set values, beliefs truths and focuses the therapist on the principles that governs his actions. It gives credence to the profession existence and substantiates reasons for practitioners therapeutics processes. In studying the philosophical basis of a profession, it is essential to look at it from its three components as it relates to occupational therapy Metaphysical component. This bothers on what the nature of humankind is. -active being, occupation performance, Reductive approach and Holistic approach. Epistemology component. This relates to the development of a professional philosophy. It analyse the nature, origin and limits of human knowledge.(Adaptation, Thinking, feeling and doing) Axiology component. It concerns with the values of the profession. Quality of life, client catered approach, code of ethics Man is an active being whose development is influenced by the use of purposeful activities, using their capacity for intrinsic motivation; human beings are able to influence the physical and mental health and their physical environments through purposeful activity. Adaptation is a change in function that promotes survival and self-actualisation, it is also described as the satisfactory adjustment of individual s within their environment over time. . Dysfunction may occur when adaptation is impaired, while purposeful activity enhances the adaptive process. Health care system has been developed from a reductionistic approach where man is viewed as separate body function and each part treated separately and focuses on specific problem for greater efficiency. However, medicine has metamorphosis into addressing all the bodily functions of the client, this is a holistic approach by occupational therapy traced to Adolf Meyer. He sees the human body as a live organism acting. The holistic approach emphasises organic and fundamental relationship between the parts and the whole being, an interaction of biological, psychological, socio-cultural and spiritual elements. Occupational therapy trend is shifting away from holistic practice to specialised (reductionistic) approach again. For example, occupational therapy practitioners working in hand rehabilitation refers to themselves as hand therapists or those in psychiatry call themselves psychiatric therapists. Critical analysis of model and frame of reference MODEL AND FOR In advancing the theoretical foundation of occupational therapy, a model is defined as a theoretical simplification of a complex reality (Frolitch, 1993) and consists of several explicitly defined concepts. Conceptual models are schematic or graphic representation of concepts and assumptions that act as a guide for theory development. The frame of reference is based on philosophy or a paradigm and attempts to describe or explain what we believe or value. Models are developed within a frame of reference. Hence, FOR are viewpoints, beliefs or values. FOR are connected sets of ideas that form the basis for action. (Duncan, 2006) Reed and Sanderson (1999) states that no perfect or ideal model for health, functioning and disability exists for occupational therapists. Rather, they suggest that occupational therapists should select the aspects from those health models that most closely fit the belief and values of occupational therapy. According to Townsend (2002), Occupational performance is defined as the result of the dynamic relationship between the person, the environment and the occupation. It refers to the ability to choose and satisfactorily perform meaningful occupations that are culturally defined and appropriate for looking after ones self, enjoying life and contributing to the social and economic fabric in the community. Occupations are groups of activities and tasks of everyday life. Activities of Daily Living (ADL) The initial process of occupational therapy assessment involves interviews with the patient and the carer to establish previously held life roles and the tasks and activities that were completed within these roles. Observational assessment is undertaken of personal self-care tasks, including showering, dressing, toileting, grooming, and eating, and domestic or instrumental tasks, including meal preparation, shopping, cleaning, laundry, and management of finances and medications. Standardized measures may include the Functional Independence Measure (FIM), [6 MODELS Model of human occupation (MOHO) The model emphasis that occupational behaviour is a result of the human system, the subsystem, the habitation subsystem and the environment. MOHO is a behavioural model. He defines occupational performance from a behavioural perspective. The model sees occupational performance as a result of mind-brain-body performance subsystem. Haglund and Kjellberg (1999) argue that the MOHO lacks the influence of the environment on human behaviour. Though it includes the environmental factor, he does not explain the interaction and relationship between the person and the environment. Canadian Model of Occupational Performance (CMOP). See in occupational performance terms of dynamic relation between occupation, environment and a person, the key elements of environment are cultural, institutional, physical and social. While the purpose of occupation can be leisure, productivity or self-care. The CMOP presents the person as an integrated whole, incorporates spiritual, affective, cognitive and physical need (Townsend, 2002) The CMOP defines occupational performance as the result of dynamic relationship between the person, the environment and the occupation. OCCUPATIONAL PERFORMANCE MODEL (Australia) In contrast to the ICF where rest is a body function, rest has an activity perspective in the OPM. CORE PROCESS (HAGEDORN 2006) The first extensive presentation of occupational therapy core competencies was produced by Mosey (1986) she based her domains of concern of the profession as performance components, occupational performances, the life cycle and the environment. While (Neistadt and Crepeau 1998) give a list at entry level to be development of skills, socialization in the expectation related to organisation, peers and the profession, acceptance of responsibility and accountability in relevant active-ties. In 1994,the college of occupational therapist published a position on core skills and conceptual framework for practice. Core skill is defined as the expert knowledge at the hearth of the Professional. The unique core skills of occupational therapy are Engage in purposeful activity and meaningful occupation as therapeutic tools to enhance health and wellbeing. Enable people to explore, achieve and maintain balance in their daily living tasks. Evaluate the effects of manipulate, physical and psycho-social environments, maximise function and social integration. Ability to analyse, select and apply occupation to focused therapeutic media to enable dysfunction in daily living tasks and occupational roles. For a therapist to be able to display core professionalism via the above listed core skills. The therapist needs to use four core processes. Therapeutic Use of Self In the heart of therapeutic intervention is the ability of the therapist to communicate with the client and establish a therapeutic relationship or alliance. Mosey (1986) described conscience use of self as one of the legitimate tools of practice. ASSESSMENT OF INDIVIDUAL POTENTIAL, ABILITY AND NEEDS For an effective therapeutic intervention, there must be a clear and accurate evaluation of the potential and abilities of the clients in view of the clients needs and goals. This is achieved through the array of tests, checklists and other assessment tools. Assessment may require detailed observation, measurement and repeated testing in relation to ADL which the individual engages. OT is concerned with the whole spectrum of human skills through all ages: past, present and future. Possibilities and probabilities need careful evaluation which requires experience and indepth clinical reasoning. ANALYSIS AND ADAPTATION OF OCCUPATION A fundamental assumption of occupational therapy is that engagement in occupation promotes health and well being. Hence, occupational analysis seeks to break down the tasks into smallest units of which performance is composed. The client skill components can be identified and the therapist can map how this can be built into competence. To achieve this, the therapist must observe, record and analyse elements of performance via work, leisure and self care activities. The therapist also employs analytical methods to determine client interaction between occupational role and social life relationships. ANALYSIS AND ADAPTATION OF ENVIRONMENT Therapists acknowledge that the environment has an effect on behaviour. It facilitates interaction, reduce stress and promote engagement. Hence, adapting to the environment can enhance occupational performance or impede engagement in task. The analysis of the environment should be at an holistic level and not limited to the physical aspects alone, but also socio-cultural aspects, emotional and financier environment. CODE OF ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT COT 2010 On a daily basis, occupational therapists are confronted with situations that requires decisions. Moral and ethics have the potential to affect the clinicians decision making practice. Ethics are philosophical stands on the rightness or appropriateness of various voluntary actions. The adoption of ethical principles is one characteristic often used to distinguish professions from other occupations (Vollmer Mills, 1966). The code of ethics and professional conduct produced by the college of occupational therapists (COT) and NPC are formulated to guide O. T in their professional conduct in terms of competent combination of knowledge, skills and behaviors. The code of ethics and professional conduct are sub divided into major sections: Service user welfare and autonomy, this includes: Duty of care, welfare, mental capacity and informed consent and confidentiality. Service provision: Equality, Resourses, the occupational process, risk management and record keeping. Personal professional integrity: Personal integrity relationships with service users, professional integrity, fitness to practice, substance misuse, personal profit or gain, and information representation. Professional competence and lifelong learning: professional competence, delegation, collaborative working, combining professional development, and occupational therapy practice education. Developing and using the professions evidence base. The code of ethics and professional conduct enacted various laws upon which an occupational therapist base his/her practice, these include: Health Act 1999 Occupational therapist is protected by law and can only be used by persons who are registered with the health professions council (HPC) O.T personnel must respect the right of all people under the Human Right Act 1998. Mental Capacity Act 2005 code of practice states that: A person must be assumed to have capacity unless it is established otherwise. Data protection Act 1998: gives individual the right to know what information is held about them and that personal information is handled properly. Roles of COT and HPC (Code of ethics and professional conduct.COT,2010)

Brazil :: essays research papers fc

The similarities between the societies found in Brazil and those found in the Andean Highlands are relatively few. The Andean Highland dwellers were mostly Incas, found in greatest numbers in Peru. The inhabitants of Brazil were mainly concentrated around the Amazon River Basin area. The Andean Highland people consisted in large part of the Inca civilization (the name of the ruling family, not an ethnicity). However, the geographic location of these societies is not the only disparity that exist between these groups of people. Perhaps the most striking of the differences is the characteristics of these societies and the advancements, or lack of, that where achieved in each. With each group having distinct characteristics in the way of life, government, and labor, this affected the colonizing groups in significantly different ways and ultimately lead to the prosperity or decline of the colony at that specific time. The forms of rule in the Amazon Basin and the Andean Highlands were of great contrast. At the time of European discovery of the New World, there existed very little political hierarchy in the areas of the Amazon River Basin. At most, and this was fairly uncommon, there was a local tribal chief. However, the government did not extend any further. There was no network of higher ruling. This may have stemmed from the fact that villages were scattered around the Amazon, divided by dense forest. The tribal chiefs would make some village decisions and be a liaison with other local villages. Still, territorial war was a major aspect of the Amazon Basin dwellers' lives. This is in sharp contrast to the political system that existed in the Inca civilization. The Inca had a profoundly intricate political system that was based on rule that was inherited through blood lines. There were local, regional, and empire ruling leaders. These statesmen demanded tribute from the lower classes and also force labor upon them, but they did provide services for the good of the people and the empire. The leaderships had relatively few physical duties other than overseeing the domain that he ruled. Territorial war was also a characteristic of the Inca society. This society has often been labeled either a socialist empire or a welfare state. Specifically, the people of the Amazon Basin lived in small villages around the Amazon River and relocated often (when the soil became fallow). They were a tribal society maintained itself through shifting agriculture and hunting and gathering. The staple of their diet was of the tuber variety, a kind of potato. The society had no classes that differentiated between the rich and poor because the people had very little or no private property.

Nursing and Family Stress Theory

Critique and Analysis of Family Stress Theory Nursing theory explains the relationship between concepts to enhance understanding and knowledge about a phenomenon (Walker & Advant, 2005). Theoretical frameworks for nursing of families provide a foundation for guiding the development of family centered care and research (Friedman, Bowden, & Jones, 2003). The application of theory helps to guide nursing practice, education, and research and supports the development of evidence-based nursing strategies and interventions for both the individual and the family as the client. This paper will critique and provide an analysis of the family stress theory. A brief introduction of the history and author of this theory will be provided and the major concepts and assumptions of the theory described. The rationale for selecting this theoretical model as it relates to family nursing practice will be provided and its strengths and weaknesses identified. In addition, a discussion of the application of the Family Stress Theory in current nursing research will be presented. Finally, ideas for future research needed to continue to develop this theory for its application in family nursing practice will be explored. Family Stress Theory The family stress theory was introduced by Professor Reuben Hill in the late1940s after the Great Depression (McDonald, n. d. ). McDonald (n. d) explains that Hill based his observations on families who survived the economic challenges of the Great Depression and those families who did not. Friedman, Bowden, and Jones (2003), explain that Hill based his research on the effects of separation and reunions as a result of war time on families. In both cases, the Family Stress Theory helps to explain why some families are able to adapt and survive when faced with stressors while other families encounter crisis. Hill’s Family Stress Theory has served as a framework for the development of more contemporary family stress models, such as the Resiliency Model, and as a foundation for clinical practice and crisis intervention (Friedman, Bowden, and Jones, 2003). Major Concepts Hill describes the importance of social relationships and positive perceptions which serve as buffers in protecting the family from crisis (McDonald, n. d. ). In developing the family stress theory, Hill formulated an ABCX framework which helps to define the stress, identify the family resources, explore the family’s perception of the stressor, and the crisis. The A variable is identified as the provoking stressor or event that the family encounters. Family experiences and strengths as well as family and community resources represent the B variable. This variable includes the family’s social support structure, both internal and external, which impact the magnitude of the stress on the family (McDonald, n. d. ). The family perception of the degree of stress produced by the provoking stressor or event represents the C variable. Combined, these three variables influence how a family copes, reacts, and manages the situation and determines whether or not the situation becomes a crisis, the X variable. Past experiences, adequate and available resources, time, and support all impact how a family is able to adapt and change to the situation. The application of the family stress theory helps to predict the potential for a family crisis. According to McDonald (n. d. ), â€Å"the combination of high stress with social isolation (the â€Å"B† variable) for families has been highly correlated with many forms of dysfunctional family outcomes† (para. ). Hill’s family stress theory provides a framework for a family as client focused assessment and the development of evidence-based nursing interventions that strengthen the family and promote positive outcomes. Family Stress Theory’s assumption about Family and Nursing The Family Stress theory is middle range theories developed by Hill and as th e variability of families are recognized through research, the traditional ABCX theoryevolved to different family stress theory and developed the conceptualization and the assumption of what family is about. In 1996, McCubbin and McCubbin outlined the theory’s assumption of a family in crisis (Smith & Liehr, 2008, p. 227) : Families over the course of life face hardships and changes as a natural and predictable aspect of family life. Families develop basic competencies, patterns of functioning, and capabilities to foster the growth and development of family members and the family unit, and to protect the family from major disruptions in the face of transitions and changes. Families develop basic and unique competencies, patterns of functioning, and capabilities designed to protect the family from unexpected or non-normative stressors, and strains and to foster the family’s recovery following a family crisis or major transition or change. Families draw from and contribute to the network of relationships and resources in the community, including its ethnicity and cultural heritage, particularly during periods of family stress and crises. Families faced with crisis situations demanding changes in the family’s functioning work to restore order, harmony, and balance even in the midst of change. In the Family Stress theory’s metaparadigm, nursing is responsible in assisting families in the process of adaptation by promoting the family member’s health, help to recover from illness, assist the family member to function within the specific health limitation, support and develop family’s strengths, assist in the use of community resources available, facilitate the family in appraisal of the situation and help the family decide what is best for the situation (Beckett, 2000) . The Family Stress Theory in Family Nursing Stress can affect intimate relationships in the family setting. Although stress is normal and natural in the family setting, severe stress can lead to serious family situations such as domestic violence, alcoholism, substance abuse, and even child neglect. The outcome of the family’s situation during the stressful event depends on how the family responds and thrives to the stressful situation. A stressful event can be in the form of an acute or chronic illness in the family, sudden role changes,hardships in the family life cycle, separation, and death of a family member. The use of Family Stress Theory in Family Nursing assists the nurses in exploring the family system’s behavior and response to situational stressors and transitional events. The Family Stress theory was useful in the family’s coping ability regarding the care of the child with extraordinary needs (Crawford, 2002) . A child with special needs is a stress to both parents because time is needed to develop competency in caring for such child in the family. The use of community and family resources should be offered and considered to adapt to the crisis. One literature also applied the theory in remarriage in families and suggested that â€Å"remarriage and adjustment to step family living are conceptualized as life transition in the framework of the Family Stress Theory † (Crosbie-Burnett, 1989, p. 323) . Identifying all the variables present in any stressful event and the family’s capability of adapting to the stress using all resources available will assist the nurse in developing the nursing process by making a thorough family internal and external environmental assessment, assist the family in creating a goal and planning for strategies to resolve the issue, providing the family possible interventions in managing the stressor event, improving coping abilities, and enhancing the family’s strength during the stressful event. The nurse is also responsible in following-up and evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention to either continue the current management or change the coping strategy. Family Assessment In the use of qualitative and quantitative studies, families have different patterns to the response of stress. Assessing family resources, coping strategies, and processes provides the function for assisting families in adaptation and attainment of a higher level of wellness (Friedman, Bowden & Jones, 2003, para 3). Families engage in different management and coping strategies when dealing with stressful events. The nurse will have to assess the healthiness or dysfunctional aspects of the family. During the assessment period, the nurse set specific goals that will help the family with coping mechanisms of stress. The foundation for achieving the goals will depend on family support, financial resources and coping strategies. Families remain strong and durable even during today’s economic crisis. Despite all the economic, social and political pressures, most families can e considered to be functioning satisfactorily (Friedman, Bowden & Jones, 2003, para 4). The theoretical model family stress identifies two types of situations that will cause a family to enter into a crisis. Those situations are classified as developmental and situational events. Events that are identified as psychosocial growth of a family are noted as developmental events. Some examples are retirement, a child entering hi gh school or college, or adoption. The examples denote the normal life cycle affecting the entire family unit. Unexpected events are considered situational events such as death, loss of job, or the loss of the home due to fire. The family’s financial resources and coping mechanisms will help the family adapt and work through the crisis. The nurse can take the listed examples and help the family develop goals in becoming healthy and strong family again. Critique of the Family Stress Theory The use of the family stress theory by nurses with advanced training is a key indicator for creating care paths that enhance the effectiveness of outcomes for positive family health. Family clinicians use the stress theory to facilitate a collaborative learning process between family members with special emphasis on the different family processes: parenting, balancing work, dealing with childhood issues, and maintaining stability in home life. The stress theory is used as a helpful tool for identifying sources of stress that lend a head start for developing strategic plans to assist with managing them. Further applicability of the stress theory offers a supportive resource for identifying coping mechanisms of individual family members and determining how effective their coping strategies are during stressful family situations. The theoretical framework for the stress theory also serves as a tool for explaining how families adjust and adapt as one system during stressful events (Friedman, Bowden, & Jones, 2003, p. 470). Information for identifying coping mechanisms for families of culture can be acquired by using a cultural genogram to gather information about their trengths and weaknesses. The clinician uses the information to apply it to the stress theory framework to assist the family with developing feasible ways of dealing with stressful events. Continued research efforts incorporating the use of the stress theory critical for developing innovative family care plans for helping families avoid and decrease stress levels. Further family-focused research can be generated to addres s the coping behaviors of culturally diverse families during stressful situations (Friedman et al. , 2003). The new wave of multi-types of families supports the need for intervention research that serves as evidenced-based practices to help not only culturally diverse families but also all families to deal with stress. Strengths The strengths identified in using the family stress theory are that the model is easy to understand and easy to translate into therapy and intervention. During the assessment period of explaining the model and how it relates to the situational crisis of the family, it is important that families understand the system. The nurse will explain adaptation, family adaptation, family coherence and family resilience. During the educational process, the concepts can be defined and described in a manner the family can view the crisis and place the event in the family unit’s perspective. As the nurse translated the model into therapy sessions and intervention processes, the family will not have difficulty working together needed to heighten family growth. The nurse and family will work together to establish goals. During the intervention session the family will engage with the stressors affecting the family. The family will work extensively to return the unit to the whole family concept. Weaknesses Weaknesses identified are limited to the discussion of aspects in the family dealing with stress and punctuation or interruptions. The family may be limited on providing pertinent information in the discussions. The nurse can help set goals based on the provided information. Shame and guilt play intricate roles in how much information is provided. The family will need to engage in the discussion and work sessions in order to return to the functional family unit. Punctuation or interruptions occur during the meetings with the nurse and family. Unforeseen activities causes disorganized scheduled meeting. A specific time should be allotted for the meeting to alleviate interruptions. The nurse and family can make stride if the sessions are uninterrupted. Family Nursing Research The trends of nursing care have evolved over the years from being a patient centered care industry into an industry focused around family centered care. The focus of providing family centered care has resulted in an emergent need to develop concepts, assessment measures and clinical skills customized to the care being provided. For this reason, family nursing research has detonated although much of the research is in its infancy stages. Much of the current literature on family nursing pertains to pediatric nursing and family, however the call for family nursing research for the adult world of nursing is emerging as well. One particular study conducted by staff researchers at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill spotlight on how families care for a child with chronic illness and debilitating diseases. The byproduct of this research study is the FaMM (Family Management Measure). Although the FaMM was cultivate through the use of the Family Management Style Conceptual Framework (FMSF), the FaMM measures how a family manages during stressful situations, which is a direct correlation to the family stress theory. In addition to spotlighting, the purpose of the study is â€Å"that it will further the development and testing of interventions and the comprehensive assessment of families' efforts to manage chronic conditions† (Knafl et al. , 2007). Based on analyzing the investigations leading up to the FaMM, researchers had ne primary question and challenged themselves to discover a way to make the eight conceptual dimensions of the FMSF into a measureable assessment tool with a high percentage of reliability and validity. Second, an evaluation tool (FaMM) and a hypothesis was developed to support the inquiry. The hypothesis converged to explain how â€Å"data from the FaMM will contribute to clinicians’ and researchers’ ability to understand more fully family functioning in the context of childhood chronic conditions† (Knafl et al. , 2007). Even though the research study appears to be qualitative in methodology with its categorical approach to establishing measurements it is overwhelmingly quantitative. Each of the established measurement guidelines or categories becomes conclusive with a percentage score as a means to evaluate against ranges. The ranges help to determine whether the family has the ability to manage many of the stress factors associated with care of a chronically ill child. The results of the research demonstrated a high validity as well as reliability. In particular, the reliability of the test ranged between 72% to 90% for mothers and 73% to 91% for fathers, both demonstrating above 50% reliability. The future of family nursing research should branch out to include all forms of family; for example, children being raised by grandparents, homosexuals, foster parents and,other forms of guardianship. With the Family Stress Theory more research is needed to determine the long-lasting effects of stress on the family unit and ways to offset these effects. Furthermore, the research from family stress theory is useful to family nursing practice in that it gives nurses a starting point to initiate interventions, treatment and, other diagnoses. Conclusion Family stress theory provides nursing staff with both intrinsic and extrinsic information to use in providing better services, care,and outreach to families. The concepts and assumptions identified in the theory arecurrently being researched for efficiency in providing the best application measures for family nursing practice. Despite the weakness identified in the theory, the strengths of the theory far outweigh. In closing, the family stress theory can be used to guide nursing practice in acute care settings but also can provide in sight on primary prevention methods. References Beckett, C. (2000). Family theory as a framework for assessment. Unpublished manuscript, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona. Retrieved from http://jan. ucc. nau. edu/~nur350-c/class/2_family/theory/lesson2-1-3. html Crawford, D. (2002). Keep the focus on the family. Journal of Child Health Care, 6, 133-146. doi: 10. 1177/136749350200600201 Crosbie-Burnett, M. (1989, July). Application of Family Stress Theory to remarriage: A Model for assessing and helping stepfamilies. Family Relations, 38, 323-331. Retrieved from http://www. jstor. org/pss/585060 Friedman, M. M. , Bowden, V. R. , & Jones, E. G. (2003). Family Nursing: Research, Theory and Practice (5th Ed. ). Upper Saddle, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Knafl, K. , Deatrick, J. , Gallo, A. , Dixon, J. , Grey, M. , Knafl, G. , & O’Malley, J. (2007). Family management measure (FaMM). Retrieved December 5, 2009, from http://nursing. unc. edu/research/famm/ McDonald, L. (n. d. ). Hill’s theory of family stress and buffer factors: Build the protective factor of social relationships and positive perception with multi-family groups_. Retrieved December 5, 2009, from http://cecp. air. org/vc/presentations/2selective/31mcdon/HILL’S_FAMILY_STRESS_THEORY_AND_FAST. htm Smith, M. , & Liehr, P. (2008). Middle range theory for nursing (2nd ed. ). New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company, LLC. Walker, L. O . , & Avant, K. C. (2005). Strategies for theory construction in nursing (4th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice-Hall.

Does Television Have Educational Value

Does television have educational value? Television, like anything else, has as much educational value as you allow it to. For example, television documentaries and sitcoms serve to reinforce or challenge societal norms and ideologies while reality television shows, in general, are intended to challenge long held beliefs and traditions. In contrast, Networks like as PBS and Nickelodeon educate young minds and the several hundred cable channels serve to support the education, whether easily apparent or trans[arentt, provided by the shows I've already mentioned as well as others.Therefore I would argue that television has significant educational value you only has to channel surf to se† that. It highly depends on what you watch. It used to be true that it had no educational value, when TV was nothing more than sit-coms and cartoons and soap operas. But, today you actually have educational options to television viewing. There's a number of different History channels, and The scienc e channel, just to name two that have very good, documentaries.News programming offers up political debates and commentaries, that we all need to hear and process. PBS has some good children's programming that teaches kids alot of valuable things. Personally I’d prefer to read than to learn anything from the television. Television focuses more on the visual aspect than the substantive. It pulls your mind in different directions. When you're reading, it's just you and the words, so I think you'd retain the material better than TV. It also depends on what you are watching and how much.I think if parents are afraid of their children watching too much television and not benefiting from it that they should monitor what their child watches. Make sure they know what the kid watches so that they know what the child is learning from it. Regulate television watching time and what is and what is not appropriate to watch. Watch together and talk about what the child watches and share the discussion. Most important of all, I think people should keep in mind that though television is tuned on for entertainment, it can also inform, enrich, and educate.